The concepts of constructivism and speech communities beyond language Essay

The concepts of constructivism and speech communities beyond language - Essay Example tilize socially loaded linguistic resources to construct the interactions that they are engaged in, as well as their own identities, or social objects. The paper explores how non-linguistic aspect of the social world should be understood about socially inscribed meanings, and also outlines how a group’s system of meanings can be imposed on another group. Non-linguistic elements encompass features such as gestures and written symbols that do not constitute language, unless when they manifest within the language framework. Non-linguistic features of the social worlds manifest in the form of action, identification, and representation. Non-linguistic features of the social world may be a way of interacting within social events. Spoken words often employ non-linguistic cues such as gestures, gaze, and facial expressions. Non-linguistic form of meaning can be derived instances in which a set sign is linked to another event naturally devoid of requirement for a conventional association between the two such as a natural association between clouds and rain. In some cases, the meaning of an expression is considered to lie within its consequences. Some of the non-linguistic meanings derive from natural history such as the connection between predator and prey, which manifest powerful intrinsic (life and death) meaning for people (GonzaÃŒ lez & Bovone, 2012). Meaning can be applied to describe the internal workings of the mind, separately from any linguistic activity. Such a meaning is highly psychological, whereby some communication by body language may emanate from bodily signals, which draw form human instinct as highlighted by examples such as tears, blushing, erections, and startle reaction. Language has been shown to interface with non-linguistic aspects of mental representation (Eller, 2009). Language can impact on non-linguistic cognition, which draws from the understanding that language does not only mirror conceptual representation, but rather can impacts and

Challenges for Construction Project Planning

Challenges for Construction Project Planning 2.1 Introduction This chapter will review the literature which has been used for this dissertation. A number of important aspects will be covered , including an overview of Construction Planning as well as determining what challenges are faced on a daily basis by construction planners. This chapter will also review research relating to Planning techniques used and software packages available within the Construction industry. 2.2 Construction Project Planning Project Management can be seen as the application of tools and techniques utilised to guide the use of resources towards achieving a n intricate task within the const raint s of time, cost and quality. From conception to completion, a mixture of these tools techniques is necessary to fit the task environment and project life cycle. The British Standard for project management (BS6079 1996) defined project management as, â€Å"The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance.† The UK association of Project Management (APM) have produced a UK body of knowledge UK (BoK) which also provides a definition for project management as â€Å"The planning, organisation, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and within agreed time, cost and performance criteria. The project manager is the single point of responsibility for achieving this.† Project Management as we know today has evolved in order to plan, coordinate and control the complex and diverse activities of modern industrial, commercial and management change projects. (Lock 2007) To allow for effective planning and control of projects, a requirement for systematic and logical methods should be applied along with proven techniques, thus ensuring a successful project outcome for all concerned parties, particularly the client. Without planning it is difficult to envisage the successful conclusion of any project or the effective control of time, money or resources. Planning is also essential in order to deal with construction risks and devise safe working methods. (Cooke 2008) Project Planning is defined as the establishment of a set of directions in sufficient detail to tell the project team exactly what must be done, when it must be done and what resources to use in order to produce the deliverables of the project successfully. (Zwikael 2008). Construction planning is an essential and challenging activity in the management and implementation of construction projects. It occupies the choice of technology, the description of work tasks, the estimation of the necessary resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions among the different work tasks. Hendrickson (1998) believes a good construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work. It is therefore common to adopt a conspicuous importance on either cost control or on schedule control as illustrated in Figure 2.1. Walker (2007) considers that by having a project schedule to work to and sticking to it, you will well be on your way to delivering successful projects. This would be dependant on effective communic ation and efficiency at all stages of the project and with an aim to reducing risk, time and cost. 2.3 The Construction Planner Construction project planning is receiving growing attention as the limitations of formal deterministic planning are becoming more widely recognised. (Winch, Kelsey 2004). There is growing concern over the failure of construction planning to achieve its goals in spite of the considerable resources allocated to it. Deficient planning techniques are commonly blamed for this state. (Laufer, Tucker, 1987) There has been considerable debate over the last decade or so on the effectiveness of construction project planning. However, there is remarkably little research into what construction project planners actually do. Laufer and Tucker provide a critique of construction planning. They protest that:- the planning and evaluation of planning processes are non-existent there is over-emphasis on critical path methods planners lack construction experience planners have poor information gathering methods planning is control-oriented instead of action-oriented Plans are been poorly presented with overly-complex information. In a subsequent paper (1994) Laufer and his colleagues look at the definition and allocation of planning work. They found that there was no clear system at work and planning was done in a multiplicity of ways. They call for the process to be properly co-ordinated by a single individual who will own the planning process and improve communication. Winch and Kelsey (2005) believe the specialist planner has the time to do the work but incomplete practical knowledge. The line manager has the practical knowledge but does not have the quality time to carry out the task. The specialist planner has better strategic decision-making skills than the short-term decision-making focus of the line manager. They then go on to say â€Å"Line managers see the delegation of key decision-making to another as a threat to their position†. These problems are confirmed in Laufer (1992) wider project management study and can result in: The planner preparing a plan which has incomplete information and in-adequate decision making authority. The line manager treating such plans as merely an irrelevant forecast prepared by another. Allen Smallwood (2008) believe Construction planners and the role they perform are little understood both within the construction industry and the wider environment where construction has a daily impact. Planning occupies a central position in the functions of the manager. His responsibilities may vary with organisational philosophy and contingency but planning invariably remains an essential ingredient of his duties. (Steiner, 1979). Much Research and Development effort has been made during the last three decades but progress with techniques has not removed the dissatisfaction with the application and results of construction planning (Choudhury 1981, Mason 1984, Morton 1983). Effective construction planning demands that it is carried out by competent and experienced personnel. While the estimator must remain in charge or pricing the work, most contracts, today, are too complex for the estimator to handle the technical content of pre-tender appraisal. It is here that the construction planner has a major function. 2.4 Planning Techniques Most planning techniques aim to express the work to be done, to a time-scale; some also include resources, and perhaps cost and value. In simple terms, they intend to help control time and cost. The other major factor in project control, quality, is controlled by its own family of control techniques; and quality is related to time and cost through the skill and judgement of the project management team. Neale (1989) believes the major components of planning techniques are: Activities: literally, being busy, expending energy, consuming resources, taking time; in construction planning, this means a job to be done; for example preparing a drawing, an order to be places, a hole to be dug, bricks to be laid in a wall, a flow of water to be diverted. Activity durations: the time required for the completion of each activity Project time-scale: the time structure of the project; it is usual to give each week in the project a number (this makes calculation easier), and these then have to be related to calendar dates, holidays, etc. Event: an occurrence at a specific point in time; for example, the granting of planning consent, of the start or end of a traffic diversion. Work method: the plan must be expressed in some logical way, indicating the sequence of operations, and which activities and events are interrelated; this may be implicit (as with bar charts) or exlicit (in network analysis, where work method is usually called logic.) Resources: often called the four Ms (men, machines, materials and money) but can include overheads (for example, site accommodation), and even such essentials as managerial skill. Costs: what the work has or will cost, often derived directly from the unit costs of the individual resources. Value: what has or can be earned by payment for work done derived from the bill of quantities, the estimate or an internal budget. The calculation of value-to-date can be used as an overall measure of project progress. 2.5 Four techniques are often used in construction planning Bar charts, Network analysis, Line-of-balance Linear programmes. 2.5.1 The bar chart/ Gantt Chart Drafting of a bar chart is popular because it produces results which are easy to understand and not too searching of the planner. Its use is limited to planning straightforward work with simple relationships between the activities. This graphical technique still forms the foundation for most resource scheduling. Its major drawback is that even minor deviations from it require extensive redrafting as a result making it more difficult to having to hand a contemporaneous bar chart that is a reliable indicator of future events. The main features of the bar chart are as follows: The activities are listed on the vertical axis Time is shown on the horizontal axis. This may be an appropriate time unit, such as months or days. Each bar is divided horizontally into two, with the top half representing when the activity is planned to take place, and the bottom shared in, as proportions of the activity are completed. A vertical movable marker line indicates the current time, thus enabling the observer to note if any activities are behind programme, and to what extent. Refer to Figure 2.2 for additional information. The format of the bar chart presumes that the end user (client) can involve the same judgment that was in the mind of the planner when he was compiling it. In highly repetitive or simple work it can be implied that the users will better understand the thought process of the planner. However as project complexity increases the user’s ability to monitor the project in relation to the programme is reduced unless it is understood: What work is important to progress? Of the activities currently behind programme what, if any, effect do they have on overall progress? On the contrary, if most of the actual work is ahead of programme, does this mean that the current prediction is that the project will be complete in advance of the targeted completion date? The answer is definitely not an automatic yes. To provide an informed response, an understanding of the relationships between programme activities is crucial. Neale (1989) consider these deceivingly simple questions contradict issues which are at the heart of many construction disputes, namely considerations for extension of time. 2.5.2 Network Analysis Unlike a bar chart, activities are not shown on an axis of time. What the network portrays is the logical relationship between activities. Network analysis is a powerful, logical and analytical technique. It is most effective when used for complicated projects, especially those with external constraints and complex interrelationships. The technique is based on drawing the logical relationships between construction operations, and from an analysis of the relative durations, establishing which operations have the most crucial effect on the project duration. It can be drawn in a number of ways, the most well-known in the UK being the arrow diagram. The technique is sometimes known as the critical path method (CPM), and critical path analysis (CPA). A version which incorporates a statistical method for calculating the probability that a project will be completed on a specific date is called the programme evaluation and review technique. (PERT) The identification of a â€Å"critical path† focuses the attention of the individuals managing the project and highlights to clients and their advisors the tasks that require to be particularly well managed with regard to time. The duration of critical path represents the shortest duration in which the project can be completed. Delays to activities on the critical path transmit directly through to extend the project completion date. This provides advanced warning of the pending delay to completion and enables the contractor (or employer) to invoke recovery action at a useful point in time rather than waiting until it is manifestly obvious that the completion date is threatened. If the employer or his Architect/Engineer (A/E) instructs additional work which affects the activities on the critical path then the contractor has grounds for a claim for an extension of time. The term critical path is widely used in the construction industry; what is not fully appreciated is how easily the critical path can change. Network analysis has a good and inclusive logical basis, lends itself easily to computer processing, and can be used as an effective control tool. These exceptional characteristics are also known to be its principal weakness as it is easier for the planner to be drawn into a level of planning and analysis that is much to detailed and advanced for most construction projects. 2.5.3 Line of Balance Line of balance is a specialised technique used for repetitive work. It derived from the manufacturing industry and has been found to be effective in planning work truly repetitive. Examples of success applications include planning the construction of identical floors in high rise construction, and large housing developments. Line of balance has been found to be difficult to use on projects which have a high demand for trades or operations to construct each identical unit. The problems arise not from the technique itself, but from the difficult of showing all the information on one chart, particularly when using the technique to monitor progress. When used to plan, it can be an excellent means of relating resources, activity durations and the general pace of work on site. Neale (1989). Illingworth (1993) considers the line of balance approach has largely fallen out of use in today’s industry due to the fact it was designed primarily for housing and did not readily provide clear visual appreciation of the situation at a glance. 2.5.4 Linear Programme (or time-chainage chart) Linear programming is a specialised technique for linear work. This is a basic tool of UK road contractors. Other successful applications include the construction of a large canal in a developing country, and it is especially useful in tunnelling. Illingworth (1993). Similar to line of balance, this is a simple two- dimensional graphical technique and can show clearly only a limited amount of information and limited degree of complexity. Figure 2.6 – Linear Programme (Neale 1989) Linear Programme Activities (Neale 1989) 2.6 Which technique? The experienced planner in construction needs to be aware of the techniques available, together with the value of each, both in the planning analysis role and how then can be applied to give effective control and communication to management on site. Illingworth (1993). Like any other professional, the planner has to select the right tool for the job. To make the correct decision, it is therefore a requirement to examine what is wanted in a particular situation programme. Illingworth (1993) believes the main points of this choice are as follows: Does the method aid initial analysis of the situation and especially in establishing the best sequence of events? Are deficiencies in progress shown up as the work proceeds? Can visiting management obtain and immediate view of the contract situation on arrival on site? With the preponderance of subcontractors on site today, does the programme method give assistance in cash flow control? According to Illingworth, from these questions it is unlikely to be the answer to all desires. Therefore it is said to be better to consider the situation in two stages – tender planning on the one hand and the operational planning after the contract has been won, on the other. 2.7 Planning Practice In order to explore further the reality of construction project planning semi-structured interviews were conducted between July and December 2000 with 18 experienced planners from five leading UK construction firms. Most of the planners interviewed were currently involved in planning at the tender stage including assembly and presentation of the tender documentation. About half of those were also involved at the tender/ pre-construction stage. Only a few were further involved during the site works. (Refer to figure 2.7). Generally, although a number of the interviewed planners had on-site experience the typical pattern is that a planner works either at the pre-tender, pre-execution stages or on site but not simultaneously. The exceptions tend to be where planners work for some time on a single large project. In such cases it may make sense (from the employer’s point of view) for their work to carry on to the execution stage. 2.8 Programming Considerations at the Tender Stage Upon receipt of tender documentation, the contractor will appoint human resources tasked with compiling a tender submission based upon the tender enquiry. One of the main individual in this team is the person accountable for producing the tender programme, the construction planner. Whether or not the contractual terms require a programme to be produced or not should be irrelevant at this stage. The tender programme is an important document produced by the contractor which is used for measuring many risk and cost related issues. In particular, the assessment of cost of the contractor’s time related preliminary items as drawn off the content of the tender programme. For example, the anticipated on site durations for different members of staff, periods of scaffold hire and duration for site accommodation are items that cannot be priced by the estimator without reference to the tender programme. When compiling the tender programme, the construction planner must incorporate the information supplied with the enquiry noting any specified constraints contained in either the contract bills, specification or drawings. Conflict between documents often exists and a view had to be taken on how to proceed. Clarification may be sought from the employer or his agents, assumptions made and stated along with the submission or the conflict may be ignored and the information that best suits the contractor is assumed without qualification or statement. It is accepted in the industry that many bids are won or lost on the programme duration alone. This happens frequently where a bill of quantities is being priced and the experienced contractors tend towards similar prime cost for similar items. On completion of reviewing tender documents, drawings, specification and bills, which may be typically done over a period of one or two weeks, the construction planner will establish the work scope which will be addressed in the creation of a tender programme. The main objective is to be aware of the specified period for construction. Additional to the completed programme should be a schedule of resources which corresponds with the programme and a series of method statements signifying construction techniques and equipment to be employed in carrying out the work. 2.9 Programming on Site When the contract is won, the site planning is equally important. It is usually at this point that the site manager will have his first chance to examine the methods on which the job was priced. What is important to recognise, at this point, is that planning must be seen as an addition to management. Thus the site manager must have the right to question the planning methods on which the contract was priced. To do so, site manager’s require the technical expertise to assess what has been put forward. In so doing, the manager concerned must, for his part, accept that if he wants to change the method from that in the priced tender, he must demonstrate that his alternative is obviously cheaper, or at least as cheap, as that priced in the tender submission. When final agreement has been reached, the planning function can be established on site and develop the final method to be adopted. This, in turn, will lead to the contract master programme and such subsidiary programmes as may be necessary. On completion of all methods being confirmed the construction planner continues to have a significant role on site. First, in developing control and short-term programmes for all organisations contributing to the contract under the main or managing contractor. Second, the construction planner’s cherished knowledge of how the work was originally planned makes him uniquely placed to examine the potential consequences of alterations to what has to be built. In this area he is a valuable source of information to the site quantity surveyor when assessing where possible contractural claims may arise. Today, with the ever increasing use of trade sub-contractors as well as specialist service contractors, the experienced construction planner has the option of either seeing the role as satisfying its own right, or as an essential ingredient of experience for becoming a successful site manager. Illingworth (1993). 2.10 Purpose of a Programme The values applicable to the mechanics of construction planning are similar whether you are a main contractor submitting a quotation to an employer, a sub-contractor quoting to the main contractor, or even a construction manager providing programme assist to an employer. Common principles apply when compiling a construction programme, that of methodical analysis. The contractor’s construction programme is an important common reference. It shows how the planner they have interpreted the contract documents and other information from which the statement of intent for construction is issued. As the key programme for the construction work, its content is of the utmost significance to all parties charged with handing over to the employer a building fit for purpose within the contract time stated. A well prepared programme is vital to every construction project. Many activities have to be cautiously defined and given a time scale, and it necessary not only to assemble and list the information but also to display it visually in terms of the contract’s objectives and the calendar. The working sequences and the relationships between individual activities must be clearly conveyed in this visual presentation.† The Chartered Institute of Building (2001). They consider the construction programme to be a statement of intended actions, which when properly used provides management with its plan of campaign. It should communicate with ease, providing the common reference for the timing of all activities related to the project. 2.11 Construction Planning Software An expert planner faced with the task of producing and analysing a network for a project containing only few activities will undoubtedly produce the fastest results by drawing a freehand arrow diagram and analysing it mentally. Lock (2007). He believes it is likely to take longer when using a computer because of the formalities needed to set up the new project files in the system and enter the data. David Arditi and Ann Rackas compiled a short report in May of 1986 with an aim in ascertaining the need for computer software to assist is construction planning and scheduling. This report concluded, the individual needs of a given construction company are the primary reasons for choosing a particular software package. For example, one of the participating general contractor’s basic requirements was to have a 40-character activity description field: â€Å"a particularly individual need†. They continued to suggest if a program is to survive the inevitable shakeout that occurs after the initial development and interest have peaked; it must offer the features and capacities that are required by the user. In addition, every effort should be made to make computers less mysterious and confusing as they will be dealing with the construction market. Today there are many planning software packages available to the construction industry. Asta Powerproject, Microsoft Project, Primavera, PERT Master to name a few. Each package is commonly suited to the individual needs of the planner. Some programs present a blank Gantt chart on the screen as soon as they are booted up, and it is apparent to the user that task data can be typed in immediately. Most programs allow the user/ planner to establish project durations, critical path network, allocate resources, assign costs to tasks and monitor progress throughout the project. As a result, most construction planning professionals use such packages daily. 2.12 Construction Planning Challenges Lock (2007) considers anyone planning a project of significant size will soon find out that there are a number of factors, both inside and outside the project organisation that can have an effect on the planner’s intentions. These are as follows: 2.12.1 External Factors All projects are subject to risk, many of which can have an enormous impact on plans. Lock (2007) deems the following are just four from the long catalogue of happenings that can be categorised as Acts of God: An earthquake devastates a project organisations headquarters. A hurricane and flood put a project site under a metre of water and delay the start or ruin the work in progress. An influenza epidemic puts half the project workforce out of action. (Swine flu outbreak 2008 recorded thousands of people off work for over 5 days.) The project manager (a keen golfer) is struck by lightning. The national government can play an important part on the smooth running of a project. E.g. the project could be government-funded and is cancelled or abandoned through a political decision. Lock (2007) also considers less immediate concerns which are the wider and longer-term economic consequences of government policy leading to downscaling of projects, delays and cancellations in all sectors of industry. Decisions made outside the project team can also have an affect on many characteristics of planning. E.g. a decision is made at directorate level to carry out a project in a different company within the group from that initially anticipated or a strategic decision is made to cut short all new staff recruitment resulting in a lower number of available resources formerly expected to be available for projects. 2.12.2 Working Factors Lock (2007) These are items which are likely to affect the project team on a daily basis. Examples include availability of resources, materials etc. People are believed to be a construction organisations greatest resource. â€Å"Construction operations depend on the knowledge and skills of people planning and executing the work†. Muir (2005.) Research has been carried out to reveal that the construction industry is typically viewed as being one of the least attractive industries in which to work. Safety plays an important part in the running of a project. Construction by nature is unsurprisingly dangerous with a high degree of hazard and risk. The Health Safety Executive believe each year: Over 1 million injuries and 2.3 million cases of ill-health are experienced by workers; Around 40 million working days are to lost; and Over 25000 individuals are forced to give up work because of injury or ill health. These cost British employers on average  £3.3 to  £6.5 billion each year. Most organisations are oblivious of these figures and are often astonished to find out what the actual costs are. Recent HSE Examples (2009) An injury to a worker using an unguarded drill cost a small engineering company  £45,000. And that was not all. The managing director was prosecuted from which two employees had to be made redundant to  keep the company afloat. At the other end of the scale the Piper Alpha explosion killed 167  people and incurred estimated costs of over  £2 billion. Accidents in construction can account for 3 6 % of total project costs. 2.12.3 Contribution of effective Planning Effective Planning and scheduling influences the results of a project as is promotes well-organised working. Personnel who are not trying continually to overcome crises caused by bad planning can dedicate more time to achieving high quality standards. A well-planned project stands more chance of being completed on time and on budget. 2.13 Chapter Summary Description Author Source To allow for effective planning and control of projects, a requirement for systematic and logical methods should be applied along with proven techniques. Cooke 2008 Improving Construction planning through 4d Planning Project Planning is defined as the establishment of a set of directions Zwikael 2008 Critical Planning Processes in Construction Projects A good Construction plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work Henrickson 1998 Construction Planning Techniques Having a project schedule to work to and sticking to it, you will be well on your way to delivering successful projects Walker 2007 Project Management in Construction, (5th edition) Construction Planners and the olr they perform are little understood both within the Construction industry and the wider environment Allan Smallwood 2008 Improving Construction planning through 4d Planning Major Components of planning techniques are: Activities, Activity durations, Project time-scale, Event, Work method, Resources, Costs Value Neale 1989 Engineering Management. Construction Planning Four techniques often used; Bar chart, Network analysis, Line-of-balance, Linear programmes Neale 1989 Engineering Management. Construction Planning Experienced planner in construction needs to be aware of the techniques available Illingworth 1993 Construction Methods and Planning Likely to take longer when using construction planning software Lock 2007 Project Management, 9th edition, Planning a project of significant size will soon find that there a number

Comparing Two Articles on Sleep Deprivation Essay -- comparison compar

Compare/Contrast Two Articles on Sleep Deprivation    Many times people think they can accomplish more if they could eliminate so much sleeping time.   However, they are only hurting their productivity if they lose sleep.   Two articles deal with the issue of sleep deprivation.   The College Student Journal published an article about the grade-point average of college students and sleep length, while U.S. News & World Report produced an article dealing with the lack of sleep in America and its effects on performance.   The articles gave different types of results from different kinds of data with different degrees of definiteness.   In spite of their differences, both articles showed that lack of sleep is a cause for decreased performance and a detriment to a productive and healthy lifestyle. First, the article on college students showed that a correlation existed between different length of sleep time and grade point average. Students who were self-evaluated as long sleepers reported a mean grade point average .5 higher than those who were considered short sleepers (3.24 to 2.74).   The article produced by U.S. New & World Report gave a similar situation.   A recent study showed that people who had been awake for the last nineteen hours had scored the equivalent of a person with a blood alcohol level of .08 (the legal limit in some states) on performance and alertness tests.   In other tests, people that slept four hours a night scored lower and made more mistakes on judgment, response time, and attention tests.   Each article gives evidence that reduced production is a result from deprivation of sleep. In addition, U.S. News reported many health concerns based on sleep experiments.   Th... ...formats.   U.S. News might have given a more comprehensive look on the issue but the outcomes were corresponding.   Lack of sleep lowers intellectual performance and general health.   If future data show similar results, people might have to change their current sleeping patterns to perform at their highest level.   It might take serious dedication to set a schedule that allows one to go to bed on time.   Over time it is well worth the effort.   Changing one's sleeping patterns is a difficult task, but it is important to a healthy, productive lifestyle. The only lifestyle we can change is our own.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited    Brink, Susan.   "Sleepless Society."   U.S. News & World Report 16 Oct. 2007: 62-72. Kelly, William E., Kathryn E. Kelly, Robert C. Clanton.   College Student Journal.   Mar.   2008:   84-86.   

How to support positive outcomes for young people Essay

If children are to achieve positive outcomes in life, it is essential that their rights are promoted are protected, they are entitled to: Equality, Inclusion and Diversity. The Definitions of the following are: Equality; opportunities to develop and learn, while their physical and emotional safety and well being are protected. Inclusion; access to appropriate settings and the experiences they offer. Diversity; acknowledgement of and respect for their individuality. Promoting positive outcomes for children depends on promoting Equality, Inclusion and Diversity in ways which are appropriate to their individual characters and requirements. Each school must produce a range of policies which formally set out the guidelines & procedures for ensuring equality. These must take account of the rights of all individuals & groups within the school. When considering the way policies work to ensure equality & inclusion, we often just think of the teaching & learning that is happening within the classroom. Policies must also pay regard to the values & practice which are part of all aspects of school life. The rights of all children & young people are stated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). The UK government ratified the treaty in 1991 & must ensure that the rights of children in the UK are protected through law. Two examples of different policies are: Special Educational Needs & Disability Act 2001 Makes it unlawful for educational providers to discriminate against pupils with a special educational need or a disability. Disability Discrimination Act 2005 Places a duty for schools to produce a Disability Equality Scheme (DES) & an access plan. Schools must encourage participation in all aspects of school life & eliminate harassment & unlawful discrimination. I have chosen to include these two policies as I agree with them for a start and it gives children so many more opportunities to learn normally without being discriminated or bullied. Children need stability within their working area especially those with a disability or impairment. And with these policies in place it will help schools to achieve this to the best of their ability therefore helping the children achieve to high standards.

Impact of Social Networking Sites on the Youth of India

IMPACT OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES(SNS) ON THE YOUTH OF INDIA : A BIRD’S EYE VIEW. Ruchi Sachdev College of Management Studies Kanpur (UP) India Abstract-This paper is focused to find out the answer whether the social networking sites are boon or bane for today’s society. No doubt these SNS provides employment ,marketing ,personal growth ,sharing of information but the most prevalent danger through often involves online predators or individuals. These SNS has great impact on youth of India. One can easily see the entry gate of these social networking sites but it is unable to find exit for these SNS.One side these sites provide to communicate with our dear ones on the other side it creates platform for many cyber crimes. Everyone should be understood that The SNS is a â€Å"child of† computing â€Å"by computing† but† for the society â€Å". So we focused on the fact that how SNS are implementing and used in an effective manner that is also beneficia l for Indian society and what are the role of Indian youth . In this paper we focused on the positive as well as negative impact of these social networking sites on the Indian youth and what are the ethical responsibilities of the users of these sites.Keywords-IEEE standards ,internet,WI-FI, elecommunication, , online ownership, online credibility. SNS(Social networking sites) are connected, both in their leisure time, and at work. There are various factors which have prompted us to consider the implications of these technologies for policy-making. One of these is the willingness of users to embrace SNS as a means of communication and social networking in everyday life. The increasing dependence on technology for basic communication also highlights the importance of analyzing how SNS are affecting daily processes.Sites like Face book, Friend ster and LinkedIn are influencing the way users establish, maintain and cultivate a range of social relationships, from close friendships to ca sual acquaintances. II CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES The basic characteristics of social networking sites can be explained with the help of following table-1 FEATURES Presentation of oneself DESCRIPTION The basic level of entry in most SNS is the setting up of a ‘profile': a personalized page developed by the user in which he/she presents him/herself to peers, through text, photos music and videos amongst others Functionalities.SNS allow users to mobilize and organize their social contacts and profiles in the way they want other members to see them. I INTRODUCTTON Social networking phenomenon has emerged over the past ten years. In that time, social networking sites (SNS) have grown from a niche to a mass online activity, in which tens of millions of internet users are engaged, both in their leisure time, and at work. However, there has been very little research on the socio-economic impact of these sites in the Indian context. In this paper we focused on the impa ct of these social networking sites on the youth of India in both positive as well as negative phase.Social networking is a phenomenon which has existed since society began. Human beings have always sought to live in social environments. The proliferation of social networking sites (SNS) and their pervasion in everyday practices is affecting how modern Indian youth societies manage their social networks. To a significant extent, SNS have shifted social networking to the Internet. In less than five years, these sites have grown from a niche online activity into a phenomenon through which tens of millions of internet users Externalization of dataThe externalization of networks is possibly one of the first times online users have been able to view their own online social networks, and share them with friends and the general public. Some SNS also support applications which allow users to describe the relation between themselves and other members. Though notions of virtual communities ha ve existed since the beginning of online applications, SNS support new ways for people to connect between themselves. Users of these sites may choose to communicate through various digital objects, such as tags and in-built applications within the SNS, such as the ‘visual shelf' application in Facebook.Users may join a community of book readers, connecting through books they have liked [4]. New ways for community formation Bottom-up activities SNS provide the ideal platforms through which users with similar values and interests can come together to collaborate effectively and cheaply. For instance, doctors can share and double check rare medical cases on health SNS such as Within3, or activists can organize a protest through sites like Care2 [5]. A major attribute of SNS' popularity is their simplicity.Anyone with basic internet skills can create and manage an online SNS presence. Prior to SNS, users gained an online presence by having a personal homepage [6]. The drawbacks we re that these homepages are not easy to create and development and hosting of the site often incur costs. In contrast, SNS are free of charge and open for anyone to join. Most of them require registration, while others limit membership through an invitation from members who are already members of the site. SNS support new points of entry to the internet: people's personal worlds.Until recently, people spoke of the internet in metaphors of places (cities, addresses, and homepages). Ease of use Figure 1: Graph 1[2] (a) Negative Impact of SNS on Youth of India Reorganization of Internet geography Table 1[5]: Taking all these characteristics together, we can observe significant changes in how users network and operate their social contacts according to different social environments. In particular, SNS seem to be influencing and shaping the way we communicate between ourselves and how we manage our social contacts.In considering the disadvantages, respondents identified a number of negat ive aspects of online social networking including: (i) the time-consuming nature of online social networking sites, Indian youth admitting that they waste a lot of time on these sites. (ii) Concern about access to personal information by others, with almost half of the youth worried that â€Å"non friends? may see their personal information. (iii) Concern that information posted may be used against them. The waste timing percentage of Indian youth on SNS can be explained with the graph shown it figure 2. IIISOCIAL IMPACT OF SNS ON INDIAN YOUTH There has been significant interest and concern about the risks of online social networking because of access to personal information and the anonymity that the system allows. A number of public cases of bullying and identity theft have put this issue in the public arena. In the survey participants were asked whether they have ever had a bad social networking experience. A considerable number of respondents in a survey (28%) reported having h ad a negative online experience with adults aged below 30 the most likely to export this (60%).These participants were asked to provide further information about the negative experience. For most respondents the experience reflected unwanted contact or people posting in appropriate or upsetting information online. Some respondents specified having online bullying and provided examples such as abusive messages and harassment from someone of the opposite sex. The number of users using SNS according to age group can be explained with the help of the graph shown it figure 1. Figure 2: Graph 2[3] b) Other Negative Impacts Of Sns The negative effects of a new technology are never fully visible in the initial stages due the hype and excitement involved. However with time we observe the more time we spend online the more connected we get hence the urge to not miss out on anything this induces an invisible layer of stress and pressure on the individuals. The very fabric of our societies is n ow beginning to take a new shape. scientist has warned. Sites such as Face book, Twitter and Bebo are said to shorten attention spans, encourage instant gratification and make young people more self-centered. i) My fear is that these technologies are infantilizing the brain into the state of small children who are attracted by buzzing noises and bright lights, which have a small attention Span and who live for the moment. (ii) A 2010 Case Western Reserve School of Medicine study showed hyper-networking (more than three hours on social networks per day) and hyper texting (more than 120 text messages per day) correlated with unhealthy behaviors in teens, including drinking, smoking and sexual activity.Hyper-networking was also associated with depression, substance abuse, poor sleep patterns, suicide and poor academic performance [4]. (iii) While the above studies show actual correlations between social networking and negative consequences, others argue that many other negative consequ ences may exist that have not yet been studied. Some of the harmful effects people suggest social networking has that have not yet yielded conclusive study results include: can also be positives. I guess there are no hard and fast rules when it comes to the effect social networks are having on us all in this day and age.It has never been easier to make friends than it is right now, mainly thanks to social networking sites. Just a few decades ago it was pretty tough to connect with people, unless you were the overly outgoing type able to make conversation with anyone at a party. The rise of mobile phones helped change this, connecting people in a new way, but then social networks sprang up and the whole idea of friendship changed once more and forever. It’s entirely possible to have hundreds of friends on Face book.They may not be friends you know on a personal level and spend time with in the real world on a weekly basis. But they’re friends nevertheless [7]. There are several people I consider friends who I have never met – indeed, I may never meet them – but that doesn’t lessen the connection we have thanks to social networks. Other major positive impacts are given as(d) Speedy Communication: Our time is being stretched thinner and thinner by work and family commitments, but social networking sites offer a chance to communicate in a speedy and efficient manner.Writing an update (i) Social networking websites are causing alarming changes in the brains of young users, an eminent (ii) Encouraging poor grammar, usage, and spelling Allowing the spread of misinformation that may be perceived as fact even in light of evidence to the contrary. †¢ Exposing children to online predators †¢ Creating a culture in which a single mistake such as a racy picture or poorly thought-out comment can cause irreparable harm to your reputation †¢ Decreasing productivity as workers habitually check social networking sites while they should be working. Providing information that increases the risk of identity theft. (c) Positive Impact of Social Networking Sites Social networking isn’t for everyone, but it’s now such a massive part of all our lives, whether we embrace or reject the notion, that it can no longer be ignored. But are social networking sites such as Face book, Twitter, and Google+ a force for good or evil? As with most questions there are multiple angles to approach this quandary from.Having already looked at the negative impact of social networking sites on society, I thought it only fair to redress the balance. Every ying has its yang, after all. Using the previous article as a loose template it’s clear to see that what some people would conceive as negatives for Twitter takes all of 20 seconds and with cross-posting over other social networks switched on, that update reaches everyone you want it to reach (and probably more besides) in an instant[5] . Social networking sites a llow you to live a life unhindered by small talk. e) In Touch with the world: It isn’t just your inner circle of close friends and even closer family members that social networking sites allow you to communicate with easily and effectively, either. They open the world up to you, making it a smaller place than it has ever been before. So much so that I actually haven’t a clue where many of my contacts reside. When it comes to social networks everyone is equal, regardless of location. Family living abroad can be kept abreast of the latest happenings in your world as quickly as those living next door.Friends who you haven’t seen since school, and who have since moved away, are able to keep in touch. Location-based services such as Foursquare and Gowalla emphasize your location but social networking as a whole means it has become a lot less important. Social networking sites have made the world a smaller place. (f) Building Relationships: There is no doubting that s ocial networking sites can lead to the breaking up of relationships. But there is another side to the tale, which is that people are moving onto other, perhaps better, relationships at the same time.Social networks can put you (back) in touch with those you have lots in common with, and that common ground is often the starting point for longlasting relationships. (f) Promises of Ownership and Authorship Online. (g) Maintain Credibility. So the youth of Indian can play an important role to reduce the negative impact of social networking sites sucha that it can be used in the beneficial way. V CONCLUSION IV ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY OF YOUTH USING SNS The new digital social networking media are a frontier that is rich with opportunities and risks, particularly for young people.Through SNS technologies, young people are participating in a range of activities, including social networking, blogging, vlogging, gaming, instant messaging, downloading music and other content, uploading and shar ing their own creations, and collaborating with others in various ways. Five key issues are at stake in the new social networking media identity, privacy, ownership and authorship, credibility, and participation [8]. These issues decide the social and ethical responsibilities of the youth that using the services of social networking sites. a) Every person that using the SNS should be aware about their rights and moral responsibilities. (b) We should respect the authentication and privacy of those members that are using SNS. (c ) We should follow the ethics of online identity. (d) Create culture of disclosure. (e) Online, a number of strategies—including privacy settings, selective disclosure, code switching, and deception are used by youth to control the presentation of their identities and thereby manage their privacy. Most social networking sites have privacy settings that allow users o limit access to their profiles to a narrow audience of confirmed friends, and evidence s uggests that many young people use them. (e) The online culture of disclosure holds important promises for young people, including empowerment of themselves and others, the creation of communities of support around shared struggles, and the development of a broad ethical sense of responsibility with respect to privacy. No doubt that SNS has great impact on the Indian youth it has lot of challenges which we have to face .There are many questions arise when we think about the impact of these SNS that What does it mean to manage online privacy in an ethical manner? How do online spaces facilitate and undermine ethical thinking about privacy? How much personal information is reasonable to share online? Young people who share personal experiences online taking steps to protect their own and others’ identities, and are these steps sufficient? Is it reasonable for young people to expect a certain measure of privacy when it comes to their online lives?Who is at fault when an unintend ed audience can read a young person’s revealing blog or MySpace page? So we should focus on the ethical use of these SNS so that it serves our society in a right way and the youth can play an important role because SNS is a boob and curse both for the Indian society . In one hand it provides away to connect our dear ones on the other side it gives a platform that become danger for Indian heritage and culture. REFERENCES [1] Introduction to SNS technology, Retrieved on September 24, 2006 From www. wi-fitechnology. om [2] Consumer Reports (2010). Social insecurity: What millions of online users don't know can hurt them. Retrieved from http://www. consumerreports. org/cro/magazinearchive/2010/june/elec tronics-computers/social-insecurity/overview/index. htm [3] Nie, N. H. & Hillygus, D. S. (2002). The impact of internet use on sociability: Time-diary findings. IT & Society, 1, 1 – 20. [4] IEEE 802. 16 and WiMAX: Social networking sites Access for Everyone, Intel Corporati on, 2003. http://www. intel. com/ebusiness/pdf/SNS/intel/80216_wimax. df [5] The Role of Technology in Telecom Expansion in India†, IEEE Communication Magazine, Vol. 36, No. 11, pp 88-94, November, 1998. [6] Bender off, E. 2007. â€Å"Cheating a Real Problem in youth’s Virtual World. † Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 1, 2008, from http://www. chicagotribun e. com/business/chi-0703080167mar08,0, 4256114story? cull=chi-bizfont-hed. [7] Of com. (2008). Social networking: A quantitative and qualitative research report into attitudes, behaviors and use. Retrieved from http://stakeholders. ofcom. org. uk/binaries/research/medialiteracy/report1. pdf